Conceptual and Analytical Framework

Defining Minorities in the Bangladeshi Context

In the Bangladeshi context, minorities refer to communities that are smaller in number within the country’s overall demography minor in terms of religion and ethnicity—constituting approximately 9% of the total population according to the BBS 2022 census; among them are culturally distinct groups who identify themselves as indigenous, having historical ties to specific regions and identities different from the Bengali majority, though the Government of Bangladesh does not officially recognize or use the term indigenous, instead adopting “small ethnic groups” or “ethnic minorities” in state documents.

Minorities have historically faced structural disadvantages in political life and social inclusion.⁸ Before the Partition of India in 1947, what is now Bangladesh had a much larger share of non-Muslim populations. According to historical census data, the Hindu population alone was around 28 percent of the region’s total population just before partition, with some estimates suggesting it was close to 30–31 percent at that time.⁹

By the time of Bangladesh’s first census in 1974, Hindus accounted for about 13.5 percent of the population, and their share has continued to decline in subsequent decades. In the most recent census (BBS 2022), minorities together make up less than 10 percent of the population, with Muslims at 91.04 percent, Hindus at 7.95 percent, Buddhists at 0.61 percent, Christians at 0.30 percent, and other religions at 0.12 percent.

For the purposes of this study, the term ‘minorities’ is operationalized as a multidimensional construct encompassing groups whose demographic status, cultural identity, or economic standing has resulted in systemic marginalization within the national political landscape. This definition moves beyond mere numerical representation to address the structural and historical constraints that impede equitable civic engagement.

Categorization of Minority Communities

To reflect the diversity of minority communities and their political experiences, the study organizes analysis across four categories:

1. Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) This category includes indigenous communities from the CHT region, where political participation is closely linked to concerns around identity recognition, land rights, local governance, and security. The CHT context is treated as distinct because of its geographic, cultural, and historical characteristics and its specific patterns of political vulnerability.
2. Indigenous Peoples of the Plains Indigenous communities of the plains are included to capture experiences outside the CHT, particularly where political participation is shaped by social discrimination, land insecurity, limited representation, and unequal access to state services and justice. This category reflects that indigenous exclusion is not limited to one region and varies across districts and local political conditions.
3. Religious Minorities Religious minority communities are included in this study to assess their participation and inclusion in the electoral process, with a focus on citizenship equality, safety, and political trust, particularly during election periods. This category also allows for an analysis of how religious identity intersects with local power dynamics and political competition.
4. Socio-economic Minorities This category includes communities that experience exclusion largely as a result of long-standing economic vulnerability, social stigma, and inadequate political protection. Such groups include tea estate workers, communities dependent on betel-leaf cultivation, trans and other socially marginalized populations. The political participation of these communities is often shaped by factors such as insecurity, limited access to essential services, and a lack of influence over public decision-making processes. These hinder their ability to fully engage in the political sphere, reinforcing their marginalization within society.

Thematic Framework

The analytical framework is built around four interconnected concepts: political participation, electoral engagement, representation, and access to justice. Each concept is understood through measurable and experience-based indicators.

Political Participation Political participation encompasses the involvement of individuals and communities in various dimensions of the political system, including representation in elections, national parliament, and vocal representation in public discourse. It also involves active engagement in decision-making processes that influence governance and policy outcomes. Political participation is a comprehensive concept that captures both formal and informal means through which citizens express their political preferences, advocate for their interests, and contribute to shaping the direction of political and social systems. As a key component of democratic functioning, political participation is an important indicator of the degree to which citizens, including minority groups, are able to influence and engage with political processes.

Electoral Engagement Electoral engagement refers specifically to participation in the electoral process, with a focus on voting behavior and the conditions that enable or restrict voter turnout. This includes individuals’ interest in voting, the perceived barriers to participation (such as fear of violence, lack of trust in the system, political pressure, or administrative hurdles), and the overall perception of the electoral process in terms of fairness, competitiveness, and meaningfulness. Electoral engagement is a critical aspect of evaluating the inclusivity of elections, particularly for minority communities, and offers insights into how citizens view the electoral process as a space for democratic expression or as one marked by uncertainty and risk.

Access to Justice

Access to justice refers to whether minority citizens can seek help and protection when they face discrimination, threats, violence, or political intimidation. It includes factors such as experiences of harassment or exclusion during political participation, trust in the police, administration, and legal system, and whether citizens feel safe reporting incidents and believe that justice will be served. Access to justice is a key condition for equal political participation because elections cannot be fair or meaningful if rights violations are not addressed. Ensuring access to justice helps create a political environment where all citizens, especially minorities, can participate without fear of harm or discrimination.